Key Insights
The UK food enzymes market, valued at approximately £150 million in 2025, is projected to experience steady growth, driven by increasing demand for healthier and more naturally processed foods. Consumers are increasingly conscious of food additives and artificial ingredients, leading to a significant shift towards natural and clean-label products. This preference fuels the demand for food enzymes, which act as natural processing aids, improving texture, flavor, and shelf life of food products without compromising their natural qualities. Key drivers include the growing popularity of bakery and dairy products, as well as the expanding processed food industry in the UK. Furthermore, advancements in enzyme technology are leading to the development of more efficient and cost-effective enzymes, further propelling market growth. However, factors like stringent regulatory approvals and fluctuating raw material prices pose challenges to market expansion. The market is segmented by enzyme type (proteases, lipases, amylases, etc.), application (bakery, dairy, beverages, etc.), and distribution channel (direct sales, distributors). Leading players, such as Kerry Inc, DuPont, and DSM, are focused on innovation and strategic partnerships to maintain their market position. The projected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.76% suggests a steady expansion of the market through 2033, reaching an estimated value exceeding £200 million.
The competitive landscape is characterized by both large multinational corporations and specialized enzyme producers. These companies invest heavily in research and development to create novel enzyme solutions tailored to specific food applications. The market is likely to witness increased consolidation as larger players acquire smaller companies to expand their product portfolio and geographical reach. Future growth will be influenced by factors such as consumer preference trends, technological advancements in enzyme production, and government regulations regarding food additives. The rising demand for sustainable and ethically sourced food products will also contribute to the market's growth, as enzymes offer solutions for reducing waste and improving resource efficiency within the food production chain. A focus on customized enzyme solutions to meet specific customer needs will also be a significant trend in the coming years.

UK Food Enzymes Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This in-depth report provides a comprehensive analysis of the UK food enzymes market, offering invaluable insights for industry stakeholders, investors, and strategic decision-makers. Covering the period from 2019 to 2033, with 2025 as the base and estimated year, this report meticulously examines market dynamics, competitive landscapes, and future growth prospects. The report leverages extensive primary and secondary research to deliver actionable intelligence and forecast a robust market expansion.
UK Food Enzymes Market Market Structure & Competitive Dynamics
The UK food enzymes market exhibits a moderately consolidated structure, with key players like Kerry Inc, DuPont, Koninklijke DSM N.V., Amano Enzyme Inc, Chr. Hansen Holding A/S, and Associated British Foods plc holding significant market share. The market's competitive intensity is driven by innovation in enzyme technology, stringent regulatory frameworks (e.g., food safety regulations), and the increasing demand for natural and clean-label food products. Product substitution, particularly with chemically synthesized alternatives, poses a challenge. However, the growing consumer preference for natural food ingredients and health-conscious eating habits fuels the market's growth. The market has witnessed several mergers and acquisitions (M&A) in recent years, with deal values averaging approximately £xx Million. These activities are aimed at expanding product portfolios, strengthening market presence, and gaining access to innovative technologies. Market share distribution among top players is estimated to be as follows: Kerry Inc (20%), DuPont (18%), Koninklijke DSM N.V. (15%), Amano Enzyme Inc (12%), Chr. Hansen Holding A/S (10%), and others (25%).
- Market Concentration: Moderately consolidated.
- Innovation Ecosystem: Active, focused on natural enzymes and improved functionalities.
- Regulatory Framework: Stringent, emphasizing food safety and labeling.
- Product Substitutes: Chemically synthesized enzymes, posing competitive pressure.
- End-User Trends: Growing demand for natural and clean-label products.
- M&A Activities: Significant activity, driving market consolidation.
UK Food Enzymes Market Industry Trends & Insights
The UK food enzymes market is experiencing robust growth, driven by several key factors. The increasing demand for processed foods, the growing popularity of bakery and dairy products, and the rising awareness of health benefits associated with enzyme-rich diets are major contributors. Technological advancements leading to the development of more efficient and cost-effective enzyme production processes are also propelling market expansion. Consumer preferences are shifting towards natural and clean-label ingredients, fostering the demand for enzymes produced through sustainable and environmentally friendly methods. The market's CAGR during the forecast period (2025-2033) is estimated at xx%, with a market penetration rate of xx% by 2033. Competitive dynamics are shaped by innovation, pricing strategies, and brand reputation. Emerging trends such as personalized nutrition and functional foods are creating new opportunities for enzyme applications.

Dominant Markets & Segments in UK Food Enzymes Market
The bakery segment within the UK food enzymes market holds a dominant position, fuelled by the consistent demand for bread, cakes, and pastries. This dominance is attributed to enzymes' crucial role in improving dough quality, texture, and shelf life. The dairy industry represents another significant market segment, driven by the extensive use of enzymes in cheese production and other dairy-based products. Geographically, the South East region of the UK emerges as the leading market, benefiting from a dense population, a robust food processing industry, and a high level of disposable income.
Key Drivers of Bakery Segment Dominance:
- High demand for bread and baked goods.
- Essential role of enzymes in improving dough characteristics.
- Extensive use in various baking applications.
Key Drivers of Dairy Segment Significance:
- Critical role of enzymes in cheese manufacturing.
- Applications in other dairy products like yogurt and butter.
- Growing consumer demand for dairy products.
Key Drivers of South East Region Dominance:
- High population density and consumer base.
- Developed food processing infrastructure.
- High disposable income levels.
UK Food Enzymes Market Product Innovations
Recent innovations in the UK food enzymes market include the development of novel enzymes with enhanced functionalities, improved stability, and wider applications. These advancements focus on addressing consumer demands for clean-label products and improving the efficiency of food processing. Technological breakthroughs, such as directed evolution and protein engineering, are driving the development of enzymes with specific properties, leading to better product quality, enhanced yields, and reduced processing times. The market sees increased competitiveness through the introduction of tailor-made enzymes for specific food applications.
Report Segmentation & Scope
This report segments the UK food enzymes market based on several factors: enzyme type (e.g., carbohydrases, proteases, lipases), application (e.g., bakery, dairy, beverages), and region (e.g., South East, North West, Midlands). Each segment's growth projections, market size, and competitive dynamics are analyzed. For example, the bakery segment is projected to experience xx% growth during the forecast period, while the dairy segment is expected to grow at a rate of xx%. The South East region is expected to remain the leading market due to its concentrated food industry and high consumer demand. The competitive landscape within each segment is shaped by factors such as product innovation, pricing strategies, and distribution networks.
Key Drivers of UK Food Enzymes Market Growth
Several factors are driving the growth of the UK food enzymes market. The growing demand for processed foods and convenient meal solutions fuels the need for enzymes that improve the quality, texture, and shelf life of food products. Technological advancements, particularly in enzyme engineering and production, result in cost-effective and higher-performing enzymes. Stricter food safety regulations are leading to an increased adoption of enzymes as safe and natural processing aids. Furthermore, the rise in consumer awareness of health and wellness is boosting demand for functional foods and ingredients which utilize enzymes for enhanced nutritional value.
Challenges in the UK Food Enzymes Market Sector
The UK food enzymes market faces several challenges. Stringent regulatory requirements for food additives and enzymes, increasing raw material costs, and potential supply chain disruptions can impact market growth. Intense competition from both domestic and international players, along with the emergence of new enzyme technologies, create a dynamic and competitive landscape. Maintaining consistent quality and safety standards amidst increasing demand for natural and sustainable enzymes presents another significant hurdle. These factors combined can lead to a xx% reduction in overall market growth if not addressed efficiently.
Leading Players in the UK Food Enzymes Market Market
- Kerry Inc
- DuPont
- Koninklijke DSM N.V.
- Amano Enzyme Inc
- Chr. Hansen Holding A/S
- Associated British Foods plc
Key Developments in UK Food Enzymes Market Sector
- 2022, Q4: Kerry Inc launched a new range of enzymes optimized for bakery applications.
- 2023, Q1: DuPont announced a strategic partnership to expand its enzyme production capacity.
- 2023, Q2: DSM invested in research and development of sustainable enzyme production methods.
- 2024, Q1: Chr. Hansen acquired a smaller enzyme producer to expand its market share.
Strategic UK Food Enzymes Market Market Outlook
The UK food enzymes market is poised for continued growth, driven by strong consumer demand for natural and convenient foods, technological advancements in enzyme production, and favourable regulatory support. Opportunities exist in developing innovative enzyme solutions for emerging food categories, such as plant-based foods and personalized nutrition. Companies focused on sustainability and traceability are expected to gain a competitive edge. Strategic partnerships and investments in research and development will be crucial for market success, with continued focus on cost reduction and improved efficacy. The market shows considerable potential for expansion within the forecast period, projected to reach £xx Million by 2033.
UK Food Enzymes Market Segmentation
-
1. Application
- 1.1. Bakery
- 1.2. Confectionery
- 1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 1.5. Beverages
- 1.6. Others
UK Food Enzymes Market Segmentation By Geography
-
1. North America
- 1.1. United States
- 1.2. Canada
- 1.3. Mexico
-
2. South America
- 2.1. Brazil
- 2.2. Argentina
- 2.3. Rest of South America
-
3. Europe
- 3.1. United Kingdom
- 3.2. Germany
- 3.3. France
- 3.4. Italy
- 3.5. Spain
- 3.6. Russia
- 3.7. Benelux
- 3.8. Nordics
- 3.9. Rest of Europe
-
4. Middle East & Africa
- 4.1. Turkey
- 4.2. Israel
- 4.3. GCC
- 4.4. North Africa
- 4.5. South Africa
- 4.6. Rest of Middle East & Africa
-
5. Asia Pacific
- 5.1. China
- 5.2. India
- 5.3. Japan
- 5.4. South Korea
- 5.5. ASEAN
- 5.6. Oceania
- 5.7. Rest of Asia Pacific

UK Food Enzymes Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 3.76% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. Increase of Food Enzyme Usage in Bakery Applications
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Global UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 5.1.1. Bakery
- 5.1.2. Confectionery
- 5.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 5.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 5.1.5. Beverages
- 5.1.6. Others
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.2.1. North America
- 5.2.2. South America
- 5.2.3. Europe
- 5.2.4. Middle East & Africa
- 5.2.5. Asia Pacific
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6. North America UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 6.1.1. Bakery
- 6.1.2. Confectionery
- 6.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 6.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 6.1.5. Beverages
- 6.1.6. Others
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7. South America UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 7.1.1. Bakery
- 7.1.2. Confectionery
- 7.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 7.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 7.1.5. Beverages
- 7.1.6. Others
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8. Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 8.1.1. Bakery
- 8.1.2. Confectionery
- 8.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 8.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 8.1.5. Beverages
- 8.1.6. Others
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9. Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 9.1.1. Bakery
- 9.1.2. Confectionery
- 9.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 9.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 9.1.5. Beverages
- 9.1.6. Others
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 10. Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 10.1.1. Bakery
- 10.1.2. Confectionery
- 10.1.3. Dairy and Frozen Desserts
- 10.1.4. Meat Poultry and Sea Food Products
- 10.1.5. Beverages
- 10.1.6. Others
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Application
- 11. Competitive Analysis
- 11.1. Global Market Share Analysis 2024
- 11.2. Company Profiles
- 11.2.1 Kerry Inc
- 11.2.1.1. Overview
- 11.2.1.2. Products
- 11.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.2 DuPont
- 11.2.2.1. Overview
- 11.2.2.2. Products
- 11.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.3 Koninklijke DSM N V
- 11.2.3.1. Overview
- 11.2.3.2. Products
- 11.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.4 Amano Enzyme Inc
- 11.2.4.1. Overview
- 11.2.4.2. Products
- 11.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.5 Chr Hansen Holding A/S
- 11.2.5.1. Overview
- 11.2.5.2. Products
- 11.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.6 Associated British Foods pl
- 11.2.6.1. Overview
- 11.2.6.2. Products
- 11.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 11.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 11.2.1 Kerry Inc
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Region 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: North America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 3: North America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 4: North America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 5: North America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 6: South America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 7: South America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 8: South America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 9: South America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 10: Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 11: Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 12: Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 13: Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 14: Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 15: Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 16: Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 17: Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 18: Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 19: Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Application 2024 & 2032
- Figure 20: Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million), by Country 2024 & 2032
- Figure 21: Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Share (%), by Country 2024 & 2032
List of Tables
- Table 1: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: United States UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Canada UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Mexico UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Brazil UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Argentina UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Rest of South America UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: United Kingdom UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Germany UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: France UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Italy UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Spain UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Russia UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Benelux UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Nordics UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Rest of Europe UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Turkey UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 28: Israel UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 29: GCC UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 30: North Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 31: South Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 32: Rest of Middle East & Africa UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 33: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 34: Global UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 35: China UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 36: India UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 37: Japan UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 38: South Korea UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 39: ASEAN UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 40: Oceania UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 41: Rest of Asia Pacific UK Food Enzymes Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the UK Food Enzymes Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 3.76%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the UK Food Enzymes Market?
Key companies in the market include Kerry Inc, DuPont, Koninklijke DSM N V, Amano Enzyme Inc, Chr Hansen Holding A/S, Associated British Foods pl.
3. What are the main segments of the UK Food Enzymes Market?
The market segments include Application.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD XX Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
N/A
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
Increase of Food Enzyme Usage in Bakery Applications.
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
N/A
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
N/A
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "UK Food Enzymes Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the UK Food Enzymes Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the UK Food Enzymes Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the UK Food Enzymes Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence