Key Insights
The Benelux cybersecurity market, encompassing Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg, presents a robust growth opportunity. With a 2025 market size of €4.04 billion (assuming "Million" refers to millions of Euros), and a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7.90% projected from 2025 to 2033, the market is poised for significant expansion. This growth is fueled by increasing digitalization across all sectors, the rising frequency and sophistication of cyber threats targeting BFSI (Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance), healthcare, manufacturing, and government entities, and the growing adoption of cloud-based security solutions. The market's segmentation reflects diverse needs: security types range from advanced threat protection to data loss prevention services; deployment options include cloud and on-premise solutions; and end-user demands vary across sectors, with BFSI and government showing particularly strong cybersecurity investments. Leading vendors such as FireEye, IBM, Fortinet, and Cisco are vying for market share, driving innovation and competition.
The increasing regulatory landscape, particularly around data privacy (like GDPR), further incentivizes organizations to invest in robust cybersecurity measures. However, the market faces challenges such as a shortage of skilled cybersecurity professionals and the evolving nature of cyber threats requiring constant adaptation of security solutions. While precise regional breakdowns for Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg are unavailable, it's reasonable to assume a distribution reflecting each country's economic size and technological maturity. The forecast period of 2025-2033 indicates a strong long-term outlook, but success will depend on vendors' ability to innovate, adapt to emerging threats, and address the talent gap within the cybersecurity industry. The Benelux market’s strategic location within Europe also makes it a crucial region for broader European cybersecurity strategies.

Benelux Cybersecurity Market: A Comprehensive Report (2019-2033)
This detailed report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Benelux cybersecurity market, covering market size, segmentation, growth drivers, challenges, key players, and future outlook. With a study period spanning 2019-2033, a base year of 2025, and a forecast period of 2025-2033, this report offers invaluable insights for businesses, investors, and policymakers operating within this dynamic sector. The report utilizes data from the historical period of 2019-2024 to build a robust forecast model for the future. The market is valued at xx Million in 2025 and is projected to reach xx Million by 2033.
Benelux Cybersecurity Market Structure & Competitive Dynamics
The Benelux cybersecurity market exhibits a moderately concentrated structure, with several multinational corporations holding significant market share. However, a vibrant ecosystem of smaller, specialized firms also contributes significantly to innovation and competition. The regulatory landscape, primarily driven by EU directives like the NIS2 Directive, significantly impacts market dynamics, pushing for increased security standards and compliance measures. Product substitution is prevalent, with new technologies continually emerging to address evolving threats. End-user trends reflect a growing demand for cloud-based security solutions and managed security services. Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) are frequent, with larger players consolidating their market positions and acquiring smaller, specialized firms for technological advancements or market access.
- Market Concentration: The top 5 players hold an estimated xx% market share in 2025.
- M&A Activity: Significant M&A deals have been observed, with an estimated total deal value of xx Million in the past five years. These deals largely focused on expanding service portfolios and geographical reach.
- Innovation Ecosystems: The Benelux region has a thriving startup ecosystem, contributing significantly to innovation in areas such as AI-powered threat detection and blockchain-based security solutions.
- Regulatory Frameworks: Compliance with GDPR and NIS2 is a major driver of market growth, pushing organizations to invest in robust security solutions.
Benelux Cybersecurity Market Industry Trends & Insights
The Benelux cybersecurity market is experiencing robust growth, driven by factors such as increasing cyber threats, rising digital transformation initiatives across various sectors, and stringent regulatory compliance requirements. The market's Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) is estimated at xx% during the forecast period (2025-2033). Market penetration of advanced security solutions, such as endpoint detection and response (EDR) and Security Information and Event Management (SIEM), is steadily increasing, indicating a growing awareness of sophisticated cyber threats among businesses. Technological disruptions, particularly in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML), are transforming threat detection and response capabilities. Consumer preferences are shifting towards cloud-based solutions and managed security services, offering scalability and cost-effectiveness. Increased competition is forcing vendors to innovate and offer comprehensive solutions catering to diverse customer needs.

Dominant Markets & Segments in Benelux Cybersecurity Market
By Offering: The managed security services segment holds the largest market share, driven by the increasing need for outsourcing security functions. The security software segment is also showing substantial growth.
By Deployment: Cloud-based security solutions are gaining traction, surpassing on-premise solutions due to flexibility, scalability, and cost efficiency.
By End-User: The BFSI (Banking, Financial Services, and Insurance) sector is a dominant segment due to strict regulatory compliance and the high value of sensitive data. The government and defense sectors also constitute significant market segments due to critical infrastructure protection needs.
Key Drivers for BFSI dominance: Stringent regulatory requirements, high value of financial data, and frequent cyberattacks targeting financial institutions.
Key Drivers for Government and Defence dominance: Protection of critical national infrastructure and sensitive governmental data.
The Netherlands holds a slightly larger market share compared to Belgium and Luxembourg due to a more developed IT infrastructure and a higher concentration of multinational corporations.
Benelux Cybersecurity Market Product Innovations
Recent product developments focus on advanced threat detection using AI and ML, improved cloud security solutions, and enhanced vulnerability management tools. These innovations offer competitive advantages by providing faster threat response, improved security posture management, and reduced operational costs. The market is witnessing a move towards integrated security platforms that offer comprehensive protection across different vectors. This trend aligns with the growing need for simplified security management and reduced complexity.
Report Segmentation & Scope
This report segments the Benelux cybersecurity market by offering (security software, security hardware, managed security services, other security types), deployment (cloud, on-premise), and end-user (BFSI, healthcare, manufacturing, government and defense, IT and telecommunication, other end-users). Each segment's market size, growth projections, and competitive dynamics are analyzed in detail. For example, the cloud deployment segment is projected to experience significant growth due to increased cloud adoption. The BFSI segment is expected to remain a dominant end-user due to stringent regulatory compliance and the value of sensitive data.
Key Drivers of Benelux Cybersecurity Market Growth
The Benelux cybersecurity market's growth is fueled by several factors: rising cyber threats targeting businesses and governments; increasing regulations mandating enhanced cybersecurity measures (e.g., GDPR, NIS2); growing adoption of cloud technologies and digital transformation initiatives; and increasing investments in cybersecurity infrastructure and solutions by organizations of all sizes. Furthermore, the heightened awareness of data breaches and their associated costs further drives market expansion.
Challenges in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market Sector
The Benelux cybersecurity market faces challenges including the skills gap in cybersecurity professionals; a complex and evolving threat landscape; the high cost of implementing and maintaining robust security measures; and the increasing complexity of managing various security solutions. These factors contribute to a persistent need for enhanced security awareness, training, and investment in cybersecurity talent. Furthermore, supply chain vulnerabilities pose a significant risk, demanding a holistic approach to security that extends beyond individual organizations.
Leading Players in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market
- FireEye Inc
- IBM Corporation
- Fortinet Inc
- F5 Networks Inc
- Fujitsu
- Cisco Systems Inc
- AVG Technologies
- Intel Security (Intel Corporation)
- Dell Technologies Inc
List Not Exhaustive
Key Developments in Benelux Cybersecurity Market Sector
- June 2022: IBM and Atos expanded their partnership, leveraging Atos's "EU trusted third-party cyber security monitoring" to enhance security for financial services organizations using IBM Cloud for Financial Services. This development significantly impacts cloud adoption within the BFSI sector.
- May 2022: Cisco released the Cisco Cloud Controls Framework (CCF), providing a comprehensive framework for compliance and certification, simplifying risk management for cloud services. This directly addresses compliance challenges and streamlines security operations for organizations.
Strategic Benelux Cybersecurity Market Outlook
The Benelux cybersecurity market exhibits substantial growth potential, driven by ongoing digital transformation, evolving threat landscapes, and regulatory pressures. Strategic opportunities exist for companies focusing on cloud-based solutions, AI-powered threat detection, and managed security services. The growing demand for cybersecurity expertise and the increasing adoption of proactive security measures will continue to drive market expansion. Further consolidation through M&A activity is anticipated, leading to more integrated and comprehensive security solutions.
Benelux Cybersecurity Market Segmentation
-
1. Offering
-
1.1. Security Type
- 1.1.1. Cloud Security
- 1.1.2. Data Security
- 1.1.3. Identity Access Management
- 1.1.4. Network Security
- 1.1.5. Consumer Security
- 1.1.6. Infrastructure Protection
- 1.1.7. Other Security Types
- 1.2. Services
-
1.1. Security Type
-
2. Deployment
- 2.1. Cloud
- 2.2. On-premise
-
3. End User
- 3.1. BFSI
- 3.2. Healthcare
- 3.3. Manufacturing
- 3.4. Government and Defense
- 3.5. IT and Telecommunication
- 3.6. Other End Users
-
4. Geography
- 4.1. Belgium
- 4.2. Netherlands
- 4.3. Luxembourg
Benelux Cybersecurity Market Segmentation By Geography
- 1. Belgium
- 2. Netherlands
- 3. Luxembourg

Benelux Cybersecurity Market REPORT HIGHLIGHTS
Aspects | Details |
---|---|
Study Period | 2019-2033 |
Base Year | 2024 |
Estimated Year | 2025 |
Forecast Period | 2025-2033 |
Historical Period | 2019-2024 |
Growth Rate | CAGR of 7.90% from 2019-2033 |
Segmentation |
|
Table of Contents
- 1. Introduction
- 1.1. Research Scope
- 1.2. Market Segmentation
- 1.3. Research Methodology
- 1.4. Definitions and Assumptions
- 2. Executive Summary
- 2.1. Introduction
- 3. Market Dynamics
- 3.1. Introduction
- 3.2. Market Drivers
- 3.2.1. Increasing Demand for Digitalization and Scalable IT Infrastructure; Rapidly Increasing Cyber Security Incidents and Regulations Requiring Their Reporting
- 3.3. Market Restrains
- 3.3.1. Lack of Cybersecurity Professionals; High Reliance on Traditional Authentication Methods and Low Preparedness
- 3.4. Market Trends
- 3.4.1. IT and Telecommunication segment is poised to grow at a faster pace.
- 4. Market Factor Analysis
- 4.1. Porters Five Forces
- 4.2. Supply/Value Chain
- 4.3. PESTEL analysis
- 4.4. Market Entropy
- 4.5. Patent/Trademark Analysis
- 5. Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 5.1.1. Security Type
- 5.1.1.1. Cloud Security
- 5.1.1.2. Data Security
- 5.1.1.3. Identity Access Management
- 5.1.1.4. Network Security
- 5.1.1.5. Consumer Security
- 5.1.1.6. Infrastructure Protection
- 5.1.1.7. Other Security Types
- 5.1.2. Services
- 5.1.1. Security Type
- 5.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Deployment
- 5.2.1. Cloud
- 5.2.2. On-premise
- 5.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 5.3.1. BFSI
- 5.3.2. Healthcare
- 5.3.3. Manufacturing
- 5.3.4. Government and Defense
- 5.3.5. IT and Telecommunication
- 5.3.6. Other End Users
- 5.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 5.4.1. Belgium
- 5.4.2. Netherlands
- 5.4.3. Luxembourg
- 5.5. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Region
- 5.5.1. Belgium
- 5.5.2. Netherlands
- 5.5.3. Luxembourg
- 5.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 6. Belgium Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 6.1.1. Security Type
- 6.1.1.1. Cloud Security
- 6.1.1.2. Data Security
- 6.1.1.3. Identity Access Management
- 6.1.1.4. Network Security
- 6.1.1.5. Consumer Security
- 6.1.1.6. Infrastructure Protection
- 6.1.1.7. Other Security Types
- 6.1.2. Services
- 6.1.1. Security Type
- 6.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Deployment
- 6.2.1. Cloud
- 6.2.2. On-premise
- 6.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 6.3.1. BFSI
- 6.3.2. Healthcare
- 6.3.3. Manufacturing
- 6.3.4. Government and Defense
- 6.3.5. IT and Telecommunication
- 6.3.6. Other End Users
- 6.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 6.4.1. Belgium
- 6.4.2. Netherlands
- 6.4.3. Luxembourg
- 6.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 7. Netherlands Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 7.1.1. Security Type
- 7.1.1.1. Cloud Security
- 7.1.1.2. Data Security
- 7.1.1.3. Identity Access Management
- 7.1.1.4. Network Security
- 7.1.1.5. Consumer Security
- 7.1.1.6. Infrastructure Protection
- 7.1.1.7. Other Security Types
- 7.1.2. Services
- 7.1.1. Security Type
- 7.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Deployment
- 7.2.1. Cloud
- 7.2.2. On-premise
- 7.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 7.3.1. BFSI
- 7.3.2. Healthcare
- 7.3.3. Manufacturing
- 7.3.4. Government and Defense
- 7.3.5. IT and Telecommunication
- 7.3.6. Other End Users
- 7.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 7.4.1. Belgium
- 7.4.2. Netherlands
- 7.4.3. Luxembourg
- 7.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 8. Luxembourg Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 8.1.1. Security Type
- 8.1.1.1. Cloud Security
- 8.1.1.2. Data Security
- 8.1.1.3. Identity Access Management
- 8.1.1.4. Network Security
- 8.1.1.5. Consumer Security
- 8.1.1.6. Infrastructure Protection
- 8.1.1.7. Other Security Types
- 8.1.2. Services
- 8.1.1. Security Type
- 8.2. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Deployment
- 8.2.1. Cloud
- 8.2.2. On-premise
- 8.3. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by End User
- 8.3.1. BFSI
- 8.3.2. Healthcare
- 8.3.3. Manufacturing
- 8.3.4. Government and Defense
- 8.3.5. IT and Telecommunication
- 8.3.6. Other End Users
- 8.4. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Geography
- 8.4.1. Belgium
- 8.4.2. Netherlands
- 8.4.3. Luxembourg
- 8.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - by Offering
- 9. Belgium Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 9.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 9.1.1.
- 10. Netherlands Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 10.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 10.1.1.
- 11. Luxembourg Benelux Cybersecurity Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast, 2019-2031
- 11.1. Market Analysis, Insights and Forecast - By Country/Sub-region
- 11.1.1.
- 12. Competitive Analysis
- 12.1. Market Share Analysis 2024
- 12.2. Company Profiles
- 12.2.1 FireEye Inc
- 12.2.1.1. Overview
- 12.2.1.2. Products
- 12.2.1.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.1.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.1.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.2 IBM Corporation
- 12.2.2.1. Overview
- 12.2.2.2. Products
- 12.2.2.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.2.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.2.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.3 Fortinet Inc
- 12.2.3.1. Overview
- 12.2.3.2. Products
- 12.2.3.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.3.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.3.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.4 F5 Networks Inc
- 12.2.4.1. Overview
- 12.2.4.2. Products
- 12.2.4.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.4.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.4.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.5 Fujitsu*List Not Exhaustive
- 12.2.5.1. Overview
- 12.2.5.2. Products
- 12.2.5.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.5.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.5.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.6 Cisco Systems Inc
- 12.2.6.1. Overview
- 12.2.6.2. Products
- 12.2.6.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.6.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.6.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.7 AVG Technologies
- 12.2.7.1. Overview
- 12.2.7.2. Products
- 12.2.7.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.7.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.7.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.8 Intel Security (Intel Corporation)
- 12.2.8.1. Overview
- 12.2.8.2. Products
- 12.2.8.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.8.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.8.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.9 Dell Technologies Inc
- 12.2.9.1. Overview
- 12.2.9.2. Products
- 12.2.9.3. SWOT Analysis
- 12.2.9.4. Recent Developments
- 12.2.9.5. Financials (Based on Availability)
- 12.2.1 FireEye Inc
List of Figures
- Figure 1: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Breakdown (Million, %) by Product 2024 & 2032
- Figure 2: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Share (%) by Company 2024
List of Tables
- Table 1: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 2: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Offering 2019 & 2032
- Table 3: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Deployment 2019 & 2032
- Table 4: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 5: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 6: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Region 2019 & 2032
- Table 7: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 8: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 9: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 10: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 11: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 12: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue (Million) Forecast, by Application 2019 & 2032
- Table 13: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Offering 2019 & 2032
- Table 14: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Deployment 2019 & 2032
- Table 15: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 16: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 17: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 18: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Offering 2019 & 2032
- Table 19: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Deployment 2019 & 2032
- Table 20: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 21: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 22: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
- Table 23: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Offering 2019 & 2032
- Table 24: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Deployment 2019 & 2032
- Table 25: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by End User 2019 & 2032
- Table 26: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Geography 2019 & 2032
- Table 27: Benelux Cybersecurity Market Revenue Million Forecast, by Country 2019 & 2032
Frequently Asked Questions
1. What is the projected Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of the Benelux Cybersecurity Market?
The projected CAGR is approximately 7.90%.
2. Which companies are prominent players in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market?
Key companies in the market include FireEye Inc, IBM Corporation, Fortinet Inc, F5 Networks Inc, Fujitsu*List Not Exhaustive, Cisco Systems Inc, AVG Technologies, Intel Security (Intel Corporation), Dell Technologies Inc.
3. What are the main segments of the Benelux Cybersecurity Market?
The market segments include Offering, Deployment, End User, Geography.
4. Can you provide details about the market size?
The market size is estimated to be USD 4.04 Million as of 2022.
5. What are some drivers contributing to market growth?
Increasing Demand for Digitalization and Scalable IT Infrastructure; Rapidly Increasing Cyber Security Incidents and Regulations Requiring Their Reporting.
6. What are the notable trends driving market growth?
IT and Telecommunication segment is poised to grow at a faster pace..
7. Are there any restraints impacting market growth?
Lack of Cybersecurity Professionals; High Reliance on Traditional Authentication Methods and Low Preparedness.
8. Can you provide examples of recent developments in the market?
June 2022 - With the help of "EU trusted third-party cyber security monitoring" offered by Atos, IBM and Atos declared an expansion of their partnership centered on IBM Cloud for Financial Services to help financial services organizations achieve the highest levels of data and system security. This will enable businesses to advance in their usage of cloud technology, including operators of vital importance (OIV) and operators of essential services (OES).
9. What pricing options are available for accessing the report?
Pricing options include single-user, multi-user, and enterprise licenses priced at USD 3800, USD 4500, and USD 5800 respectively.
10. Is the market size provided in terms of value or volume?
The market size is provided in terms of value, measured in Million.
11. Are there any specific market keywords associated with the report?
Yes, the market keyword associated with the report is "Benelux Cybersecurity Market," which aids in identifying and referencing the specific market segment covered.
12. How do I determine which pricing option suits my needs best?
The pricing options vary based on user requirements and access needs. Individual users may opt for single-user licenses, while businesses requiring broader access may choose multi-user or enterprise licenses for cost-effective access to the report.
13. Are there any additional resources or data provided in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market report?
While the report offers comprehensive insights, it's advisable to review the specific contents or supplementary materials provided to ascertain if additional resources or data are available.
14. How can I stay updated on further developments or reports in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market?
To stay informed about further developments, trends, and reports in the Benelux Cybersecurity Market, consider subscribing to industry newsletters, following relevant companies and organizations, or regularly checking reputable industry news sources and publications.
Methodology
Step 1 - Identification of Relevant Samples Size from Population Database



Step 2 - Approaches for Defining Global Market Size (Value, Volume* & Price*)

Note*: In applicable scenarios
Step 3 - Data Sources
Primary Research
- Web Analytics
- Survey Reports
- Research Institute
- Latest Research Reports
- Opinion Leaders
Secondary Research
- Annual Reports
- White Paper
- Latest Press Release
- Industry Association
- Paid Database
- Investor Presentations

Step 4 - Data Triangulation
Involves using different sources of information in order to increase the validity of a study
These sources are likely to be stakeholders in a program - participants, other researchers, program staff, other community members, and so on.
Then we put all data in single framework & apply various statistical tools to find out the dynamic on the market.
During the analysis stage, feedback from the stakeholder groups would be compared to determine areas of agreement as well as areas of divergence